Factor XII in Thrombosis and Thromboinflammation: From Molecular Biology to Clinical Translation

Factor XII (FXII) is a central mediator at the intersection of coagulation, fibrinolysis, inflammation, and immunity. It is activated upon contact with negatively charged surfaces, triggering the intrinsic coagulation pathway and driving thrombus formation and stabilization. Beyond clotting, FXII contributes to activation of the kallikrein-kinin system, generation of bradykinin, and modulation of inflammatory and immune responses. Congenital FXII deficiency does not increase bleeding risk, highlighting its unique role and making FXII inhibition an attractive strategy for anticoagulation and immune modulation with a potentially superior safety profile. Preclinical studies provide compelling evidence for this concept. In models of ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury, FXII blockade significantly reduced infarct volume, improved neurological outcomes, and attenuated neuroinflammation without increasing hemorrhage. Similarly, in extracorporeal circulation and vascular stent implantation, FXII inhibition prevented thrombus formation and reduced fibrin deposition, achieving effects comparable to heparin but with markedly lower bleeding risk. Several classes of FXII inhibitors are currently in development, including antisense oligonucleotides, peptides, recombinant proteins, and monoclonal antibodies. Among them, Ixodes ricinus contact phase inhibitor (Ir-CPI) and recombinant human albumin-fused Infestin-4 (rHA-Infestin-4) have demonstrated strong antithrombotic efficacy in animal models. Most notably, garadacimab, a monoclonal anti-FXIIa antibody, has completed phase 3 trials and received regulatory approval for hereditary angioedema (HAE) prophylaxis, where it markedly reduces attack frequency with a favorable safety profile. This review summarizes current knowledge on FXII biology and evaluates its translational potential as a novel target for anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory therapies.

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Peer-reviewed clinical and outcomes research relevant to anticoagulation, leech therapy, and microsurgical flap management. Indexed in PubMed and verified against the NCBI record.

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